Executive Summary	1
Chapter 1: Life-Cycle Assessment	7

1.1 Introduction	7
1.2 References	9

Chapter 2: A Conceptual Framework for the Application of the Life-Cycle Concept and Life-Cycle Assessment to Public Policy	11

2.1 Life-cycle concept	11
2.2 Life-cycle concept qualitative to quantitative	13
2.3 Life-cycle assessment	13
2.4 Life-cycle concept and public policy	14
2.5 Systems approach to public policy for the environment	15
2.6 Basic technology decision process and policy instruments	16

2.6.1 Regulatory policies	18
2.6.2 Economic and technology policies	19
2.6.3 Information dissemination and education	20

2.7 Summary	20
2.8 References	20

Chapter 3: Environmental labeling	21

3.1 Introduction	21
3.2 Background on environmental labeling	21

3.2.1 Goals of environmental labeling	21
3.2.2 Types of environmental labeling	22

3.3 Status of life-cycle approaches in environmental labeling	24

3.3.1 Use of life-cycle approaches in third-party seal-of-approval programs	24
3.3.2 Use of life-cycle approaches in specific claims declarations	25
3.3.3 Use of LCA in CA environmental information labeling	28

3.4 Framework for the use of life-cycle approaches in environmental labeling	28
3.5 Technical assessment of the application of life-cycle approaches to environmental labeling	31

3.5.1 Tools for life-cycle approaches in environmental labeling programs	31
3.5.2 Technical issues in I'D LCA in environmental labeling programs	35
3.5.3 Strengths and weaknesses of more qualitative versus more I'D approaches in environmental labeling	37

3.6 Measuring the effectiveness of life-cycle approaches in ecolabeling programs	38

3.6.1 Why measure?	39
3.6.2 Who measures?	39
3.6.3 What should be measured: specific issued to address in a performance review	39
3.6.4 Timing of the performance review	40

3.7 Stakeholder involvement in the use of life-cycle approaches in environmental labeling	40
3.8 Communication of life-cycle approaches used in environmental labeling programs	42

3.8.1 Generic communications requirements	42
3.8.2 Third-party seal-of-approval programs	43
3.8.3 Specific claims declarations	43
3.8.4 Quantified product information labels	43

3.9 Conclusions and recommendations	43
3.10 References	44

Chapter 4: Acquisition and Procurement	47

4.1 Introduction	47

4.1.1 Scope	47
4.1.2 Definitions	47
4.1.3 Environmental considerations in the acquisition process	48
4.1.4 Stakeholders	48
4.1.5 The role of life-cycle concepts in acquisition and procurement	48

4.2 General concepts and issues	49

4.2.1 Who is a stakeholder?	49
4.2.2 Consensus	51
4.2.3 Valuation	52
4.2.4 The unique nature of the customer in public procurement	53
4.2.5 Interdependence of stakeholders, consensus, and valuation	54
4.2.6 Win-win opportunities	54
4.2.7 Simplicity vs. complexity	55
4.2.8 Small business considerations	55

4.3 Acquisition	55

4.3.1 A closer look at an acquisition process the DoD process	56
4.3.2 System engineering approach the Saturn example	59

4.4 Procurement of environmentally preferable products and services	60

4.4.1 Goal	60
4.4.2 Environmentally preferred products and services	60
4.4.3 Issues	67

4.5 Conceptual toolbox methods: applicable to acquisition and procurement	68

4.5.1 Tools used in the acquisition process	68
4.5.2 Tools applicable to procurement decisions	69
4.5.3 Economic accounting tools	69
4.5.4 Non-economic metrics used in analysis	70

4.6 Implementation	71
4.7 Summary of key findings	73
4.8 Future needs	74

4.8.1 Acquisition	74
4.8.2 Procurement	74
4.8.3 Tools and metrics	74

4.9 References	75

Chapter 5: Policy and Regulations	77

5.1 Goals of using life-cycle concepts in public policy	77

5.1.1 Goal	77
5.1.2 Observations	78

5.2 Generic framework for applying life-cycle concepts to public policy	79
5.3 Case study comparison of municipal solid waste management options using a life-cycle assessment	80

5.3.1 Background	80
5.3.2 Purpose	81
5.3.3 Definition of the problem	81
5.3.4 Limitations of conventional approaches	81
5.3.5 Value of life-cycle concepts to address this problem	82
5.3.6 Obstacles	83
5.3.7 Overcoming obstacles	84
5.3.8 Communication	84

5.4 Case study: USEPA waste minimization and combustion strategy	85

5.4.1 Introduction	85
5.4.2 Purpose	85
5.4.3 Limitations of conventional approach	85
5.4.4 Value of life-cycle concepts	86
5.4.5 Obstacles	86
5.4.6 Overcoming obstacles	87

5.5 Case study USEPA industrial laundries effluent guideline	87

5.5.1 Background	87
5.5.2 Purpose	88
5.5.3 Limitations of conventional approach	88
5.5.4 Value of life-cycle concepts	88
5.5.5 Obstacles and overcoming obstacles	90
5.5.6 Communication	90

5.6 Case study: incorporating LCA concepts in a degreasing rule	91

5.6.1 Background	91
5.6.2 Purpose	91
5.6.3 Limitations of conventional approach	91
5.6.4 Value of life-cycle concepts	92
5.6.5 Applying life-cycle concepts	92
5.6.6 Obstacles	92
5.6.7 Lessons learned	93

5.7 Case study: Dutch system for continuous environmental improvements in consumer products	93

5.7.1 Background	93
5.7.2 Purpose	93
5.7.3 Limitations of conventional approach	94
5.7.4 Value of life-cycle concepts	94
5.7.5 Obstacles	95
5.7.6 Overcoming obstacles	96
5.7.7 Communication	97
5.7.8 Summary	97

5.8 Barriers	98

5.8.1 Lack of education	98
5.8.2 Lack of acceptance of life-cycle concepts as decision-making tools	99
5.8.3 Lack of stakeholder participation / partnerships	99
5.8.4 Requirements for data confidentiality	100
5.8.5 Difficulty in defining scope / boundaries	100
5.8.6 Shortage of time and resources and inability to reduce costs	101
5.8.7 Lack of tools and data	101

5.9 LCA in strategic policy planning: international perspectives	101
5.10 Observations and recommendations	103

5.10.1 Observations	103
5.10.2 Recommendations	103

5.11 References	104

Chapter 6: Environmental Technology	115

6.1 Introduction	105

6.1.1 Overview: technology, public policy, and life-cycle concepts	105
6.1.2 Definitions	105
6.1.3 Relationship of technology to public policy	106
6.1.4 Relationship of LCA to public policy	106
6.1.5 Using LCA in policy to promote environmental technology	107
6.1.6 Integrations framework	108

6.2 A framework for the use of life-cycle concepts in public policy	111

6.2.1 Introduction: some policy considerations and principles	111
6.2.2 Research, development, and demonstration policy	112
6.2.3 Regulatory policy (U.S.)	113
6.2.4 Market stimulus (market-based) policies	113
6.2.5 Fiscal policy	114
6.2.6 International commerce & foreign aid	114
6.2.7 Education and training	115
6.2.8 Information and dissemination	115

6.3 Life-cycle applications to public policy for environmental technology	116
6.4 Life-cycle applications in public policy development	118

6.4.1 Study introduction and purpose	118
6.4.2 Case studies examined	118
6.4.3 Results and discussion	121
6.4.4 LCA as a tool in forming environmental public policy	123
6.4.5 Key findings	126

6.5 References

127